Dress cultures reflect self-perception and group identities, and yet they are also driven by commodification, fetishism and myth’
Rohan Patel (2016)
Dress cultures are driven by commodification, fetishism and myth, but since we make individual choices on how and what we wear, the actual clothes, the juxtaposition of styles, and what we display are self-governing choices that often mirror either our actual identity or the identity we wish to become or display to society. By examining urban photography, this essay I will explore the complexities of fashion as a means of representation.
Fashion does indeed serve as a reflection of self-perception and is a fundamental component of individual identity (Roach-Higgins and Eicher, 1992). This means that the way people dress is an important aspect of how they perceive themselves, but also how they are perceived by others (Barnard, 2002). However, as Hall (1980), noted, these identities are not fixed. Therefore, our dress style will shift to the environment. Sometimes this is authentic, sometimes, as in the case of William Hague and his dress style at Notting Hill carnival, it appears authentic (Williams 2019).
Clothing and fashion choices can also reflect an individual's personal beliefs, values, attitudes, personality, and social status (Muir, 2011). Additionally, dress cultures allow individuals to connect with their cultural heritage and history (Barnard, 2010). Understanding the complex ways dress cultures contribute to the construction and expression of individual identity can inform the development of interventions and strategies to promote positive self-concept and self-expression through fashion (Roach-Higgins and Eicher, 1992).
By using a camera to document fashion, photography becomes a powerful tool to examine the diverse way people represent themselves (Muir, 2011). Within the urban context, larger cities often provide anonymity due to larger populations and less scrutiny of individuals, this can result in more eccentric clothing choices (Gilbert, and Lazzeretti, 2021). Photographers are often drawn to the distinctive boundaries of culture, capturing eccentric styles and people (Hyman, 2009). Photographer Ari Seth Cohen's project "Advanced Style" is a prime example of how dress cultures reflect self-perception (Cohen, 2012). The project features stylish older women in New York City who dress flamboyantly. Cohen believes "style is not just for the young, it is for everyone" (Cohen, 2012). His photographs reflect this belief by showcasing the diversity of styles among the older generation. Cohen's photographs highlight how these women use fashion to express their personalities and maintain their identities. Through his work, Cohen demonstrates how a dress can be used to assert one's individuality and to challenge stereotypes about ageing. For example, one of the women said, “If everyone is wearing it, then it’s not for me” (Cohen, 2012) because it was important to her that she is able to let others see her beyond the usual perception of elderly women.
However, it is important to note how social norms affect how we dress (Rose et al. 1994). Dressing up or down can influence how individuals perceive themselves and others. Erving Goffman's (2007), argues that individuals are constantly engaged in "impression management" through their interactions with others, using various strategies to present a desired image of themselves. Clothing and fashion choices are critical aspects of this impression management process, allowing individuals to present a carefully curated image to others. Portraiture allows clothing to present a story (Greene, et al. 2020). Clothing can function as a means of communication, conveying information about an individual's identity, beliefs, and values to others. (Woodward, 2007). This is particularly the case with young people where fashion choices are important as are often in the process of establishing their identities and negotiating their place in the world (Jenkinson, 2020). For example, Nina Manandhar’s (2014) project documents various people reflecting on their youth fashion choices from the 1950s to present day. The work displays a shared commonality of turbulence within adolescence, and fashion becomes an outlet to navigate the bridge of identity between childhood and adulthood (Manandhar, 2014).
Photography is essential for cultural representation and social commentary (Ballenger, 2014). Photographs of dress cultures not only capture the clothing but also the attitudes, lifestyles, and social dynamics of the urban environment in which they are situated (Vaccarella and Foltyn, 2013). There are distinct cultural groupings of dress culture that have emerged throughout history, with each group using fashion to express their unique identity and assert their place in society (Breward, 1998). This is evident in Jamel Shabazz's iconic photographs of New York City's hip-hop scene in the 1980s and 1990s, which showcase how young African Americans utilised fashion to reclaim their cultural heritage and resist mainstream culture. Shabazz’s pictures display the diverse styles of dress among urban youth, which were heavily influenced by hip-hop culture and African American history (Burton, 2020). His images are a testament to the power of fashion as a tool for self-expression and cultural preservation. The photographs demonstrate how fashion can be a visual language that communicates identity and provides a sense of belonging within a community. The dress culture in the hip-hop scene was not just a fashion statement but a form of challenging mainstream culture and had ability to reclaim African American cultural heritage (Guerrero, 2019). Shabazz's images highlights the importance of documenting cultural movements and subcultures through photography, as it allows us to understand better and appreciate the richness and diversity of human experience.
Further, fashion choices serve as a means of challenging dominant cultural norms and aligning with particular social groups or subcultures (Hebdige, 1979). Dick Hebdige's influential study of subcultures argues that dress is a means of cultural resistance, a way of asserting identity and difference in the face of mainstream culture (Hebdige, 1979). Punk is a vivid example of using fashion to challenge dominant cultural norms, assert a sense of identity and difference, and establish a sense of community and belonging. The punk movement emerged in the mid-1970s as a counterculture response to mainstream society, rejecting the polished, consumerist styles of mainstream fashion, instead embracing a DIY, anti-fashion ethos (McNeil & McCain, 1996). Sheila Rock's photography provides a compelling visual representation of punk fashion, group identity, and cultural resistance (Rock, 2016). Her photographs showcase the DIY aesthetic of punk fashion and the unconventional materials and methods used to create it. Through her work, Rock offers a powerful visual representation of the cultural resistance that Hebdige discusses, highlighting the importance of fashion and group identity in challenging dominant cultural norms and asserting a sense of identity and difference. Punk fashion served as a means of cultural resistance, allowing punks to express their individuality and challenge dominant cultural values, while also aligning themselves with like-minded individuals and establishing a sense of community and belonging within their subculture.
Moreover, dress culture often reflects the economic disparities that occur within society. According to sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1984), dress cultures are away of asserting social distinction, reflecting and reinforcing social class hierarchies. Bourdieu states that taste in clothing is not a matter of individual preference, but rather a manifestation of one's cultural capital, or the cultural knowledge and skills valued by a particular social group. Daniel Meadows’s body of work offers a powerful exploration of this link by showcasing how fashion choices are tied to cultural capital and social class. Meadows’s shots of people on the street highlight how fashion can be used to signal membership in a particular social group or culture, and how these choices can reflect and reinforce social class hierarchies (Bourdieu, 1984).
Recently, there has been a shift within the artistic world to work in a socially engaged practice. This approach could potentially shift power of representation from the artist to marginalised groups to themselves and, therefore a more authentic voice to be heard (Scholz, 2018). We can see this not only through socially engaged photographers, but also through the work of organisations such as photovoice who use this methodology in social policy discussions (Wang, C., & Burris, M. A., 2018).
Photographers have worked with communities to document their surroundings and experiences. Notably, photographers such as Dawoud Bey have utilised their craft to create powerful, nuanced portrayals of underrepresented communities that provide an alternative to mainstream media narratives (Bey, 2012). Bey's portraits of African American residents of Harlem in the 1970s offered a counter-narrative to dominant stereotypes and depicted his subjects with dignity and humanity, giving them visibility and representation that they had long been denied (Bey, 2017). Through the lens of urban photography, these individuals can challenge the limited and often distorted depictions of their communities in mainstream media, and instead offer a more complex and authentic representation of their lives and experiences.
Despite this, fashion has always been an exchange between style and monetary value (Másdóttir, 2017). Walsh (2013), defines commodification as a ‘process of transforming a thing which has only use-value into a good with both use-value and exchange-value.’ As Adorno and Horkheimer ([1944], 2002) argue, in a capitalist society, everything becomes commodified, including culture and art. The Fashion industry has transformed clothes into commodity that can be bought and sold. The commodification of fashion has led to a culture in which people are judged based on what they wear and how they present themselves. This has resulted in an obsession with trends and fast fashion, where clothing is produced quickly and cheaply, contributing to environmental problems and poor labour practices.(Hoskins, 2022).
Photography has become a powerful tool for the fashion industry, with photographers and fashion houses working together to produce images that sell a particular brand or image. (Perthuis, 2019). As König (2018) argues, fashion photography has become an art form, with photographers producing pictures that are as much about the photographer's visualisation as they are about the clothes being worn. Despite this, the purpose of fashion photography is ultimately to sell a product, and as such, it is part of the broader system of commodification that illustrates modern consumer culture (Perthuis, 2019). The commodification of fashion and beauty perpetuates unrealistic beauty standards through the use of photo editing tools, which promote narrow and homogenous aesthetic ideals. Martin Parr, a prominent British photographer, has criticised online photo editing tools for contributing to the homogenisation of visual media and the creation of images that lack natural imperfections and idiosyncrasies (Swerling, 2022). To counteract this, it is necessary to promote greater diversity, authenticity, and inclusivity in visual media, and to critically engage with the ways in which beauty standards are constructed and perpetuated (Rosida and Saputri, 2019).
Within the context of urban photography, the commodification of street style photography has also led to the exploitation of the people being photographed, who are often uninformed of the ways in which their images are being used to sell products (Hadley, 2022). As Krause (2018), argues, the commodification of urban photography has led to the formation of a new form of celebrity, in which people are famous not for their talents or accomplishments, but for their style and ability to exemplify a particular image. The 2013 case involving DKNY and photographer Brandon Stanton exemplifies this issue. DKNY hung one of Stanton’s images of a woman in a Bangkok store, without obtaining permission from either party (BBC, 2013). This was seen as violating both Stanton’s artistic intentions and the woman's personal autonomy. This case highlights the need for greater awareness of the rights of individuals to be photographed in public spaces, the importance of gaining proper consent, and the necessity of promoting transparency and responsibility in commercial photography practices (Hadley, 2022). The exploitation of individuals for commercial gain damages both their autonomy and the integrity of the creative process (Langmann and Pick, 2014). The commodification of fashion represents a significant challenge to individuality and personal expression and highlights the ways in which capitalism shapes our understanding of culture and art (Horton and Payne, 2018).
Urban photographers often capture the way in which fashion advertising creates mythical narratives around dress (Lévi-Strauss, 1979). As Barthes notes, fashion advertising presents a "spectacle" that invites the viewer to participate in a mythic world of glamour and desire (Barthes, [1967] 1990). For instance, Calvin Klein's advertising campaign in the 1990s, which featured young models in provocative poses, conveyed a mythic message about youth, beauty, and desire (Jhally, 1990). Despite this, Barthes suggests that fashion operates as a semiotic system, where clothing items become associated with particular meanings and values. For example, the use of traditional textiles in contemporary fashion design can be seen as a way of mythologising cultural heritage. Jim Naughten's series "Conflict and Costume" captures this process, documenting the way in which traditional dress is transformed through its use in contemporary fashion (Naughten, 2013). Through the work of urban photographers, we gain a deeper understanding of how fashion constructs mythic narratives around dress, inviting viewers to participate in a world of glamour and desire.
Furthermore, dress is mythologised through its association with subcultures. Hebdige (1979), notes that the meanings attached to dress by subcultures are often arbitrary, and that the subcultural style is mythologised through its association with particular social groups. This is evident in the work of Gavin Watson, who documented the skinhead subculture in the 1980s. Watson's photographs capture the way in which skinhead dress became mythologised through its association with a particular style, a particular way of being (Watson, 2013). Initially representing camaraderie, pride, and working-class identity, the skinhead style eventually became linked with aggression and violence (Muggleton, 2000). The associations between dress and subcultures are shaped by subjective interpretations and cultural contexts, rather than inherent or objective qualities (Clarke et al., 1976). In the case of the skinhead look, its association with aggression and violence has overshadowed the multifaceted nature of the subculture, encompassing a range of political affiliations, interests, and motivations (Muggleton, 2000). Dress cultures are shaped by mythic narratives that attach symbolic meanings to dress. By analysing the mythic dimensions of dress cultures, we can gain a deeper understanding of how dress functions as a means of communication, shaping how people view themselves and others.
It is important to understand there is connection between dress cultures and exploitation. Sontag notes that fashion photography is often used to create an idealised, glamorous images of women, which can hurt their self-esteem and body image (Sontag, 1977). Furthermore, the unnecessary sexualised nature of this form of photography, both in itself, but as a process in production was highlighted in 2017 Terry Richardson was ‘cancelled’ for sexually inappropriate behaviour towards women, using photography as a tool to behave in an exploitative manner. This case shows how art can objectifying and fetishising women, which raises ethical concerns about the fashion photography realm (Entwistle, 2000; Hearn, 2014). Objectification can be rooted in Freud's concept of fetishism (Freud, 1927), may reinforce societal expectations of gender roles and standards of beauty. Within dress cultures, clothing can be read as sexual, but in fact this is merely constructed by society (Barnard, 2007). Feminists often work want to deconstruct this attachment, for example, Corinne Day's work, featuring unconventional models and candid shots, exemplifies an attempt to challenge idealised portrayals of beauty within the fashion industry (Breward, 2013). However, it is essential to consider whether these methods are effective in dismantle existing power structures or inadvertently perpetuate them (Deepwell, 2020). Conversely, photographers like Ellen von Unwerth embrace fetishisation and employ it to produce playful and subversive images of women (McRobbie, 2008). This approach raises questions about whether blurring the lines between fantasy and reality offers an opportunity for creative expression or reinforces harmful fetishisation and objectification of an individual. In critically examining the issue of fetishization in fashion photography, it is necessary to consider the power dynamics, representation of identity, and the intentions and outcomes of urban photographers' work.
Further, regarding the impact of fetishisation on the representation of identity in fashion photography, it is essential to examine the dynamics between commodification and cultural appropriation. The incorporation of urban photography into fashion blurs the lines between fashion and streetwear, drawing attention to subcultures. Although this integration can provide visibility and recognition for marginalized groups, it also carries the risk of exploiting and exoticizing these subcultures. For instance, Glen Luchford's work may perpetuate stereotypes about poverty and violence by presenting working-class people and urban settings (Sontag, 1977). A thorough analysis must assess the implications of these practices on audience perception, the balance between cultural appreciation and appropriation, and the effectiveness of challenging or perpetuating existing power structures and stereotypes.
In conclusion, the examination of dress cultures, fashion, and urban photography reveals the intricate interplay between representation and identity construction. Dress functions as a reflection of self-perception and individual identity, influenced by personal beliefs, values, social status, and cultural heritage. Urban photography captures the diversity of styles and individuals, showcasing fashion as a means of self-expression and a tool for challenging societal norms. However, the commodification of fashion presents challenges, including issues of fast fashion, environmental impact, and labour exploitation. Fashion photography, while a potent medium, can perpetuate unrealistic beauty standards and objectify individuals. Critical engagement is necessary to promote diversity, authenticity, and inclusivity in visual media.
Furthermore, the convergence of dress cultures with subcultures highlights the mythologisation of styles associated with specific social groups. Urban photographers document the transformation of traditional dress within contemporary fashion and the cultural narratives embedded within subcultural movements. These representations shape identities and contest societal norms. Ethical considerations arise in fashion photography, particularly regarding exploitation, fetishization, and cultural appropriation. A critical examination of photographers' intentions and power dynamics is imperative to avoid perpetuating harmful stereotypes and objectification. Developing a nuanced understanding of representation, cultural appreciation, and their impacts on marginalized communities is crucial. Overall, the exploration of dress cultures, fashion, and urban photography underscores the complex dynamics between personal expression, commodification, mythologisation, and representation. Engaging critically with these issues facilitates positive change, authenticity, diversity, and inclusivity within the realm of fashion and photography. It is through this heightened awareness that we can navigate the intricacies of dress cultures and strive for a more inclusive and empowering representation of identity.
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